|
||
|
|
|
|
||
 |
 |
Pest management practices of rice farmers in AsiaPEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF RICE FARMERS IN ASIA Edited by K.L. Heong and M. Escalada Methods in farmers' knowledge, attitude, and practice research in pest management M.M. Escalada and K.L. Heong If researchers are to design appropriate improvements in pest management, they must understand why farmers do the things they do. The most common methods used to obtain this information include rapid rural appraisals, key informant interviews, focus group interviews, and farmer surveys. If properly planned and carried out, these methods can be cost-effective ways to obtain data for setting research priorities and designing intervention strategies to improve farmers' pest management decision making. The key informant interview involves talking to knowledgeable persons. It can provide background information needed for designing the survey. The focus group interview, a directed group discussion with various sectors of a population, can be used to obtain insights into farmers' perceptions and concerns and to probe the issues that emerged during a key informant interview. The farmer survey, which comprises problem identification, questionnaire development, pretesting, sampling, field work, data processing and analysis, can be used to improve problem definition, to raise further questions, and to answer others. Farmers' pest management practices in Cambodian lowland rice G.C. Jahn, Pheng Sophea, Kiev Bunnarith, and Pol Chanthy We interviewed 1,149 lowland rice farmers about their knowledge, attitudes, and practices in rice pest management in 10 Cambodian provinces from June 1995 to April 1996. Forty-three percent of the farmers were not aware of natural enemies of rice pests; 59% thought that pesticides increase rice yields. Only 19% believed insecticide applications could produce pest outbreaks by killing natural enemies. More farmers applied pesticides in the dry season than in the wet season, and more men than women used pesticides. Pesticide users and nonusers did not differ significantly in average age, education, or farming experience. Nationally, 22% of wet season rice farmers and 57% of dry season farmers used pesticides. The rice yields of pesticide users and nonusers did not differ significantly, except in the wet season among farmers not using fertilizers. Insecticides and rodenticides were the most popular pesticides. None of the farmers used fungicides. In both the wet and the dry seasons, nearly half of those applying pesticides used a knapsack sprayer. The average reported dry season yield of 2.5 t ha-1 was significantly higher than the average reported wet season yield of 1.4 t ha-1. Pest management practices of rice farmers in Hunan, China Li Shao-Shi, Guo Yu-Jie, Hu Guo-Wen, and Liang Di-Yun A survey of rice farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices of integrated pest management was conducted in Wangcheng County, Hunan Province, China, in 1991. Two hundred sixty-six farmers were interviewed. Most (93%) of the farmers believed they could not control insect pests without using pesticides, which they applied 9.9 times per year on average. Seven percent of them believed beneficial insects could suppress pest populations from developing, but only 8% knew about parasitoids. Most (62%) obtained pest management information from the local technology extension station. But when actually making a pest control decision, about half relied on their own experience or that of a neighbor's. Two thirds of the farmers had not attended any pest management training. Pest management practices of rice farmers in Hunan, China Li Shao-Shi, Guo Yu-Jie, Hu Guo-Wen, and Liang Di-Yun A survey of rice farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices of integrated pest management was conducted in Wangcheng County, Hunan Province, China, in 1991. Two hundred sixty-six farmers were interviewed. Most (93%) of the farmers believed they could not control insect pests without using pesticides, which they applied 9.9 times per year on average. Seven percent of them believed beneficial insects could suppress pest populations from developing, but only 8% knew about parasitoids. Most (62%) obtained pest management information from the local technology extension station. But when actually making a pest control decision, about half relied on their own experience or that of a neighbor's. Two thirds of the farmers had not attended any pest management training. Role of women in rice pest management in Zhejiang, China Hu Ruifa, Cheng Jiaan, Dong Shouzhen, and Sun Yinyin Results of a farmer survey carried out in Zhejiang province, China, in 1996 showed that with the development of the rural economy, more women were involved in rice pest management. However, economic and social factors--particularly income, household size, amount of farm land, men and women's jobs, and age--affected the proportion of women taking responsibility for pest management. The technical service system was the main source of information women used to make decisions about pest management. Although most of the women believed they could make pest management decisions based on their own experience and through the information provided by the technical service system, pesticides were overused mainly because of their inaccurate perceptions of the relationship between control efficacy and pesticide use. Pest management practices of rice farmers in Tamil Nadu, India S.D. Sivakumar, S.R. Subramanian, S. Suresh, and M. Gopalan We conducted a survey of 120 rice farmers in Thanjavur and Chengai MGR districts in Tamil Nadu to study farmers' pest monitoring, assessment, and control practices and the constraints in their adopting integrated pest management (IPM) practices. One-hundred twenty farmers comprised the sample selected randomly from. Most of the farmers observed leaffolder, stem borer, and earhead bug. Of the beneficial insects, they were most familiar with dragonflies and damselflies. Department of Agriculture officials were the major sources of pest control information. All of the farmers used various nonchemical IPM measures, including insect-resistant varieties, cleaning bunds, and synchronized planting. The cost of chemical control was higher on small farms than on large farms. A lack of easy-to-follow pest assessment techniques and of group efforts were the major constraints to following IPM practices. Pest management practices of rice farmers in West Java, Indonesia S. Kartaatmadja, J. Soejitno, and I. P. Wardana Two surveys on rice pest management were carried out in the districts of Indramayu, Subang, Karawang, West Java in 1991 and 1993. The first evaluated farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices in controlling rice pests. A second, more in-depth survey of rice pest management was conducted in Desa village, Cikalong, Karawang district. Farmers ranked white stem borer and then brown planthopper as the most important rice pests in the wet season; rats were said to be the most serious rice pest during the dry season. Farmers said bacterial leaf blight was the most common rice disease found in the field. Bacterial red stripe or bacterial orange leaf blight, a newly identified rice disease, was reportedly found in fields. In both surveys, farmers' reliance on insecticides as a control method for rice pests was high. Surprisingly, most of them (76%) applied broad spectrum insecticides that are not recommended for use against rice pests. IR64 was widely used in northern West Java (82% in wet season and 46% in dry season), although farmers in Cikalong avoided planting it to prevent white stem borer infestation. Farmers' rice pest management practices in the rainfed lowlands of Lao PDR H.R. Rapusas, J.M. Schiller, and V. Sengsoulivong A survey of 463 rice farmers was conducted in 11 provinces in the northern, central and southern regions of Lao PDR in February, March, and October 1994. Most of the respondents were 30 to 45 years old and owned their farm land (90%). Farm sizes ranged from 0.25 to 7 ha. Thirty-eight percent had up to 1 ha of land, 43% had 1 to 2 ha, and a few had more than 5 ha of land planted to rice. Farmers reported growing traditional photoperiod-sensitive and glutinous varieties, and usually three to four varieties in one season. The cropping pattern was generally rice-fallow (75.6%), though 23% had rice-rice and 1% had rice-other (maize, vegetables, watermelon). Stem borers, grasshoppers, rice bugs, gall midge and other lepidopterous larvae/worms were reported to be the most commonly observed pests. Around 75% of the respondents indicated they did nothing to control these pests while 23% said they applied pesticides. Most of those who used pesticides applied it only once, mostly in the seedbed and within the first 40 days after transplanting. Most of the pesticides used belong to Category I and II. Yields of farmers who did not apply pesticides were higher than those who treated their crops for insects, rats, and crabs. Seventy-two percent of the respondents perceived that leaf-feeding insects cause yield loss and 44% believed that these insects should be controlled early in the cropping season. Some respondents were aware of natural enemies, such as spiders, dragonflies, beetles and wasps, in their fields, but were uncertain about their roles. A comparison of pest management practices of rice farmers in Muda and Kemubu Irrigation Schemes Normiyah and P.M. Chang Direct seeding has replaced traditional planting as the dominant method for establishing rice in Peninsular Malaysia. We conducted surveys on farmers' pest management practices in the Muda and Kemubu Irrigation Schemes in 1991 and 1994, respectively. Structured personal interviews were used to obtain socio-demographic data along with varietal use, seed rate, knowledge of pests and natural enemies, pest management practices, and related safety measures. A comparison of the two survey areas showed that most farmers could recognize the major insect pests found in their areas and the major grassy weeds, but they could not identify diseases other than tungro. They were aware of natural enemies but were uncertain about their role. Most practiced early season insecticide application against leaf feeders; chemical control was their main management strategy. They were not, however, particularly concerned with the associated health hazards. Although they were aware of the role of clean and quality seeds, many farmers could not obtain them because of a limited supply. Farmers' perceptions of rice tungro disease in the Philippines H. Warburton, F. L. Palis, S. Villareal We conducted a survey in the Philippines to investigate farmers' perceptions of rice tungro disease. Farmers regarded tungro as a serious problem even in areas where outbreaks are rare. Most farmers could describe tungro disease symptoms but gaps existed in their understanding of the causes and modes of spread. The relationship between the virus disease and its main vector, green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens (Distant), was often not clearly understood. Many thought tungro could be transmitted through water, air, soil, and other insects. Farmers were unaware of the risks of leaving infected plants, which can act as sources of disease inoculum, in the field. Farmers' pest management strategies were based on the use of insecticides and resistant varieties. In areas where tungro was common, farmers had greater awareness of the importance of varietal resistance. Factors affecting perceptions of tungro were analyzed, including links between beliefs about human diseases and plant diseases. The risk characteristics of tungro were also examined to explain why farmers regard tungro as such an important disease. This study highlights the need for more relevant information for farmers that would complement their existing knowledge and enable them to improve their management of this disease. Rice farmers' weed management practices in Iloilo, Philippines K. Moody, M.M. Escalada, and K.L. Heong To understand rice farmers' perceptions and practices in weed management, a farmer survey was conducted of 300 rice farmers in Iloilo province, Philippines. In both wet and dry seasons, most of the farmers planted IR64 using seeds procured from other farmers and neighbors, their own seed stock, the Department of Agriculture, and private seed growers. Farmers who retained seeds for planting in the next season used seeds from the second crop as these were judged to be of better quality. Most farmers changed seeds every year in order to plant a disease-resistant variety, to improve yield, or try out other varieties. Off-types, weedy types and red rice were the contaminants observed in the rice crop. When there are contaminants, farmers either removed them or did nothing. Rice weeds were believed to have come from the soil, carried by irrigation water or mixed with rice seeds. Among the weeds considered to cause production loss, Echinochloa crusgalli L. was reported to be the most destructive. Other weeds considered destructive were Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl, and Cyperus iria L. To reduce weed problems, herbicide application, water management, and hand weeding were the most common measures practiced by farmers. Herbicides were applied by most farmers at seedling and vegetative stages. When using water management to control weeds, the majority either flooded their field a few days after herbicide application or only flooded the rice field. Water management was the main responsibility of the male in the household while hired labor did most of the weeding. In terms of attitudes toward seed management, most farmers believed that seeds from private seed growers do not require additional cleaning, infection and contaminants in rice seeds for planting decrease yield, and neighbors and friends should exchange seeds among themselves. However, farmers were ambivalent about the value of seed cleaning and the function of winnowing to remove all infected seeds. K.L. Heong, A.A. Lazaro, and G.W. Norton Pest management perceptions and practices of farmers growing both rice and vegetables were studied. Farmers' practices, particularly early season and unnecessary applications of insecticides, were similar in both rice and vegetables. However, they sprayed more frequently and used more toxic insecticides in vegetables than in rice. The main targets of insecticide sprays in both crops, particularly during the early crop stages, were insect pests causing leaf damage, and highly toxic compounds were used to control these pests. Farmers' practices generally reflected their perceptions of pests and their damage. Pest management practice of rice farmers in Sri Lanka L. Nugaliyadde, T. Hidaka, and M. P. Dhanapala Nearly 330 rice farmers in seven administrative districts of Sri Lanka were interviewed to determine their pest management practices and knowledge of insect pests and natural enemies. Most of the farmers (95%) were unaware of the pest-resistant characteristics of commonly grown varieties. During the main season (October to March) of 1995-96, farmers interviewed reported experiencing infestations of the following insect pests: leaffolder (22%), rice bug (17%), brown planthopper (16%), stem borer (14%), thrips (5%), cut worm (5%), gall midge (4%), and army worm (4%). Most (86%) applied insecticides to control these pests, 7% did nothing, and the rest used traditional methods. Farmers applied insecticides an average of 1.2 times per season of which 83% were to control pests rather than to prevent infestations. Forty-two percent of these insecticide applications were applied at the seedling stage and 40% at the vegetative stage. The most commonly used insecticides were carbofuran (10%), chlorpyrifos (7%), phenthoate (7%) and monocrotophos (5%). The majority (92%) believed that leaf-feeding insects would cause damage to rice and 61% thought that spraying should be done early to avoid severe crop losses. Although 83% of the farmers knew about natural enemies of rice pests, only 17% knew their role in the rice ecosystem. Farmers' perceptions of and practices in weed management in Thailand L. Meenakanit and P. Vongsaroj A survey of 300 rice farmers was conducted to determine their perceptions of and practices in weed management. The survey involved eight provinces of the Chao Phraya basin in the central plain and two provinces of Pak Panang basin in southern Thailand. The data were collected through personal interviews using a pretested questionnaire. The most important weeds present in the areas surveyed were grassy weeds, namely Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv., Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees, and broad-leaved weeds such as Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl. Applying chemicals (2,4-D and butachlor+propanil) was the main weed control method used by farmers. Most of the farmers knew that weeds are the main factor accounting for reduced yields and that they also harbor other pests. Most of the farmers had favorable attitudes toward weed management: the importance of early detection of weeds, good land preparation, synchronized planting, and applying the recommended dosage of herbicides. Among the different weed management methods, herbicide application and mechanical methods were the options known by most farmers. The changing role of women in rice pest management in central Thailand L. Meenakanit, M.M. Escalada, and K.L. Heong A survey of 221 women farmers in Central Thailand was conducted to assess women's roles in rice pest management, analyze associated factors, and determine training needs to improve pest management knowledge and practice. Most of the women farmers were 31 to 40 years old, married, had a primary level education, and were involved in all rice production operations. To work in rice farming, most women had to give up house work and other domestic responsibilities. Most of the women farmers interviewed perceived brown planthopper to be the most serious insect pest. To control pests, most used pesticides and applied their first sprays within the first 30 days after planting. Pesticide application frequencies ranged from 1 to 10 per season, with 1 to 3 applications as the most common. Either the woman or a male household member made decisions on the amount of money for pesticides. About a third of the women farmers interviewed reported applying pesticides themselves. Most were aware of pesticide health hazards and more than half reported that they sometimes experienced illness after spraying. About half had attended some form of pest management training. Among the untrained women farmers, most expressed lack of interest to attend training because they had no time. Most believed that pesticide applications would increase rice yields. Rice farmers' pest management perceptions and practices in Long An Province, Vietnam Vo Mai, N.H. Huan, K.L. Heong, M.M. Escalada, and A.A. Lazaro A survey of 633 rice farmers conducted in August 1994 in Tan Tru and Tan Thanh districts in Long An province showed that brown planthoppers, sheath blight, and rice leaffolders were farmers' most important rice pests. They often sprayed pesticides to control these pests. Particularly for leaf-feeding insects, insecticide sprays were applied during the first month after seeding. These insects were perceived to be very damaging and would cause heavy yield losses in rice. Early season insecticide sprays for their control were believed to be necessary. Organophosphates, such as methamidophos, monocrotophos, and methyl parathion, were the most popular insecticides used to control the leaf feeders. These insecticide applications may have been unnecessary because rice plants have the ability to compensate for leaf defoliation. Early applications of broad spectrum insecticides may instead cause ecological disruptions that can favor brown planthopper development. Farmer participatory research, strategic extension campaigns, and pest management training to help farmers realize that these early insecticide sprays are not beneficial should be encouraged. Comparative Analysis of Pest Management Practices of Rice Farmers in Asia K.L. Heong and M.M. Escalada Farmer surveys in 10 Asian countries were used to examine trends in rice pest management practices. Pesticides remain the dominant control tactic of farmers and insecticides were used more frequently than herbicides and fungicides. Of the insecticides, many farmers were still using compounds classified as extremely or highly hazardous to human health (WHO I), namely, methyl parathion, monocrotophos and methamidophos. Herbicides were commonly used in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Only farmers in China and Vietnam used fungicides regularly. Mean number of insecticide sprays varied from 0.3 in Lao PDR to 3.9 in Vietnam. Most of these sprays were applied during the seedling, tillering and booting stages of the rice crop. Farmers generally overreacted to leaf-feeding pests, collectively referred to as "worms," and tended to apply their first insecticide sprays during the first 4 weeks after establishing the crop. They strongly believed that leaf-feeding insect pests damage the crop and reduce yields. Based on this perception, farmers would choose insecticides to kill the pests to protect their yields. To improve farmers' pest management perceptions and decision making, researchers need to address issues such as the influence of communication media in shaping perceptions and attitudes. |
|
|
|
Methods in farmers’ knowledge, attitude, and practice research in pest management Farmers’ pest management practices in Cambodian lowland rice Pest management practices of rice farmers in Hunan, China Role of women in rice pest management in Zhejiang, China Pest management practices of rice farmers in Tamil Nadu, India Pest management practices of rice farmers in West Java, Indonesia Farmers’ rice pest management practices in the rainfed lowlands of Lao PDR A comparison of pest management practices of rice farmers in Muda and Kemubu Irrigation Schemes Farmers’ perceptions of rice tungro disease in the Philippines Rice farmers’ weed management practices in Iloilo, Philippines Pest management practice of rice farmers in Sri Lanka Farmers’ perceptions of and practices in weed management in Thailand The changing role of women in rice pest management in central Thailand Rice farmers’ pest management perceptions and practices in Long An Province, Vietnam Comparative analysis of pest management practices of rice farmers in Asia |
|
|
|
